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Look at how a lot of squidoo lenses operate, they may have 0 or only a couple paragraphs of unique content, but by pulling in feeds from other sources suddenly you have maps, blog posts, images, videos, etc and are a somewhat unique source.  Another thing to consider might be to pull in the scraped content with an iframe and make sure you have enough unique on the page to still be able to rank.

Why not just noindex the pages?

This is very common in Wordpress.  Have them change the template, and if they want it to still look the same then just call the style as a class.

Why not both?  Some cases one method is preferred over another, or in fact necessary.  As with non html documents such as pdf, you may have to use the robots.txt to keep it from being indexed or header tags as well.  I'll also give you another option, and that is to password protect a directory.

There is no right or wrong here.  It is how you feel comfortable laying out a site.  A menu with every page on a site can be a disaster for a user experience, but if it's not that many then it's fine.  You could do a single services page and then just add links in the context (assuming a paragraph or something for each term.) or you could do a secondary menu for instance on the right side of the page that links to the particular pages.  Whatever makes sense to you and users, I won't speculate without knowing the full sitemap.

For the first question, if you have the time to make all the pages and are willing to do so I think it's a great idea.  In most cases getting content right away is the hard and time consuming part so a lot of people will instead use blog posts to target the long tail keywords.  I can easily see several posts about construction, maybe an unboxing of a kit, and a color chart sounds like a great infographic piece.

For part 2, google lowered the value of keyword rich domains long ago.  Search in any major market for anything and I'm sure you'll see many many sites ranking above those that are keyword rich.  I'm not saying being keyword rich doesn't help, but for instance search seo and notice some of the top results will be wikipedia, moz.com (which admittedly used to be seomoz) and searchengineland.  These aren't keyword rich and they still rank well, if you like the name then that's what you should go with.  Tell the seo company that if they want a keyword rich domain then they should make it into a second microsite and can build links to both, but make it clear to them that the main focus should be on the main website.

Even Moz's grader doesn't take all factors into account, but the biggest issue you are likely missing are links, could be external or internal or both.  Make sure you have a few different keyword variations linking to the page, check the backlink profiles of a few of the top pages to make sure but I bet they have some anchor text links coming in that you are likely missing, giving them more relevance in the eyes of google.

You should be able to go to Goal Overview > Source / Medium and see where the user came from.

As the other guys said, just go ahead and do the redirect. It would at least help if someone is looking up the new attorney by name.  To address the other part of your question, that page that you redirect will not be "blank" as you are telling Google with the 301 redirect that the page has moved.

If they don't have links built to them, I don't see any benefit in redirects unless some are typical spelling errors for instance.  You might be better off picking a few and making specific product microsites that link back to the homepage.

As Dinesh suggested, the Adwords Keyword Planner is a great tool.  You can also use Google Suggest and related searches at the bottom (Ubersuggest or Scrapebox for more results,) then there's Soovle which pulls from many sources, and Google Trends also has related terms.

The secret is to get a googol links.  Seriously though, quality over quantity.  Try to get links in your niche.  If you're a home builder then get links from home builder directories not general directories, if you're in a location look for those city directories and get local citations.  Each industry is different, check out the links that your competitors and competitors from other markets have for ideas.  You could spend a lot of time worrying about 15 bookmarking links, 10 classified links, and an article or some magic number, but I'd take one link from a relevant and authority website over all of this.

Try User Agent Switcher.

You should be fine submitting the subdomain link.  I assume you have taken steps to have the links removed already?

Go ahead and do redirects from https to http, make sure canonicals are redone to http as well, make sure the sitemap is using http, and create a new profile in webmaster tools with the http version and submit the sitemap, go ahead and force crawl the main pages as well.

Check out parameter exclusion options in Webmaster Tools.  You can tell the search engines to ignore these appended parameters.

I would vary them when possible.  Most can be for the exact keyword but I think some variation is better as well, maybe even a few "here" links, actual links put as anchor text, etc.

1.  I would call this a best practice, not spam.

2.  Probably won't hurt, but not really a best practice.  Check out http://blog.maxcdn.com/better-image-seo-canonical-headers/ explaining using images multiple times and canonical headers to point to the original source.  I also see no problem with different alt texts.

I have changed a few without any negative impacts.  Think about it, Google still knows where you are.  However, if it's not really mandatory to change it then why do it?  They aren't enforcing the service area, and do you actually service people at your location?  Like can they come in and make an appointment or drop off a payment?  I fear not having a physical address shown may affect CTR.

Do you have any examples of this Andy?  I was under the impression that backlinks are exactly what gave you pagerank.  I would assume those with higher PR you saw just had links that whatever indexing agent like OSE did not see, but Google did, and the ones with loads of backlinks were simply low quality or there were lots of links on the particular page.