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It is always best to do a one to one redirect instead of a chain. As Federico said, there is some pagerank loss when doing a redirect (though the exact amount is debatable and may be neglible) and redirecting A to B to C compounds the problem. On top of that, too many redirects in a chain will lead Googlebot to stop crawling the chain. One or two is fine, three or more is not. In this older video http://youtu.be/r1lVPrYoBkA Matt Cutts started talking about redirect chains at around 2:48 and mentions that one, two and maybe three in a chain is fine. This Whiteboard Interview from 2010 with Matt Cutts http://moz.com/blog/whiteboard-interview-googles-matt-cutts-on-redirects-trust-more also states the 1 or 2 301s in a chain. So if you're redirecting  A -> B -> C -> D -> E -> F... you're possibly hurting yourself. Where possible you should change the redirects so its A to F, B to F, C to F, D to F and E to F. As for removing the redirects after a certain number of months, I'd check to see how many people are still linking in with that older URL. You'd want to ask sites linking in to update to the newest URL before you 404 it and lose those links. And if you're still getting tons of direct traffic coming in on an old 301 then you might want to do some digging & research before you cut off that traffic. Odds are though after a few months you wouldn't be getting as much traffic coming through on the older URL but there is always the possibility.

First, remember that canonicals are a suggestion not a directive. Which means if Google doesn't feel the need to honor the canonical then it doesn't. Also, I would check how you have parameter handling set up in WMT since that could be affecting how googlebot is crawling the page and how it views ?id= and ?option= on your site. It may also be, as Nakul pointed out, not really anything... sometimes WMT will show an error that isn't an error until it gets another good crawl of those pages and fixes itself.

If you're on the ads manager page, "email support" is on the left navigation.

As for merging pages, when you request to merge pages they're supposed to be pages for the same thing and with a similar names as well... so depending on how different the name is after the rebrand, that may not work. Also all content, posts, and photos of the old page get deleted... only the likes and check-ins merge into the new page.

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There's a workaround that may or may not work for you. I've never done it myself so I don't know if it's 100% reliable.

If you've run ads for your page... Go to Manage Ads, then Email Support, select "Pages", select "Changing my page's name", check "I understand", select the page that you want to change, select what type of page it is, check the box at the bottom, enter your page's current name, enter your page's desired name, check the boxes and hit send.

Have you already changed the page name once since you've been over 200 Likes?

Moz's crawler is rogerbot so that shouldn't block it as far as I know. What does the rest of your robots.txt look like? Maybe something in the format of it is accidentally disallowing more bots than you meant to block.

Go to setting and under Page Info they list your name. Choose Edit and then click Request Change. If your Page has more than 200 likes, you can only change your Page name once. If your request has been approved, you won't be able to submit another request for that Page. Changing your Page's name will not affect its username or Page address.

Yep... www.example.com, example.com, example.com/index.php, www.example.com/index.php can all be seen as separate pages if not handled correctly. Essentially you need to determine whether the WWW or Non-WWW version of your pages are your preferred and what your preferred version of the homepage is (slash, no slash, /index, etc. etc.). Then go into Webmaster Tools and set either WWW or Non as your preferred and set up 301s on your site to redirect anyone from the non-prefered to the preferred versions.

Tag archives shouldn't be canonicalized because the hope is that you would be adding more content to both over time that would negate the relevancy of the canonical. Most people seem to NoIndex their tag archives... which is a fine solution considering Tag Archives have negligible benefits in Search. You could keep them indexed if you would prefer and the duplicate content issue will be solved once you add more content to each. Also, keep in mind that Matt Cutts, in a recent video, said that duplicate content will not penalize you if it is non-spammy... it just won't rank well (or at all) while duplicate.

What sort of cards are we talking about? I immediately think "greeting cards" when you say that but I don't want to just assume that's the case. But if it is then from a personal user experience standpoint I would say that I would be more likely to search a specific range & gain more from finding a category page for a range of cards in the SERPs than I would from a page with an individual card on it. I.E. I'm more likely to search "birthday cards" or "get well cards" or "thank you cards" than I would to search "that birthday card with a grumpy cat that has balloons and a smushed cake". In which case I'd say go with robust category pages and, if possible, consider canonicalizing the individual cards to the category if you're going to also use the content of the parent category on the individual pages. If it's not greeting cards... well then I wrote all of this for nothing. (unless its playing cards... what I wrote might work for that as well)

Here's a two-fold answer: 1) As per Matt Cutts, duplicate content is not an issue unless it is spammy or keyword stuffed. Non-spammy duplicate content will mainly just be ignored (i.e. will not rank for anything). Too much thin content could get you hit during a panda refresh. http://searchengineland.com/googles-matt-cutts-duplicate-content-wont-hurt-you-unless-it-is-spammy-167459

2. It is always best to have good, unique and relevant content on any and all pages that you would actually like people to be able to find and/or access. If you have the manpower to spare to update the content then there's no good reason not to do so. If the pages aren't ranking well because of duplicate content and you don't care if those specific pages rank in the SERPs then you can always consider putting a NoIndex on them.

Because Google has never broken its own guidelines and then penalized its own pages before.... http://searchengineland.com/google-penalizes-google-japan-16541
http://searchengineland.com/google-chrome-page-will-have-pagerank-reduced-due-to-sponsored-posts-106551

As a sort of "continuing education" grant for the New York State Board of Education, my mom (who has a PhD in Educational Technology) was tasked with teaching teachers in New York City high schools how to teach using current technology through a variety of web based courses. One of the courses she would take them through was a basic understanding of how the search engines work, why (to an extent) some pages rank for the terms they show up for, and how that can be leveraged in a modern teaching environment. She even used a number of articles from Moz, SEJ, SE Round Table, etc. It was mainly to make teachers better searchers though so they could more quickly find and access relevant and up-to-date information. So it was almost an Intro to SEO class.

Don't know of any universities that do true SEO course or degrees... or even how they would considering how quickly the landscape changes in this industry.

Yup, management wanted us to look into running a "contest" as well recently which got put on hold when we brought up this from FB's terms & conditions: Personal Timelines must not be used to administer promotions (ex: “share on your Timeline to enter” or “share on your friend's Timeline to get additional entries” is not permitted).

Facebook Pages can't always see every person who shared a post of theirs because of the privacy settings of the specific user.

Double-check they're in your competitor list without any spelling errors. You never know. The sheer amount of times I still type ,com instead of .com and somehow can't see the difference is staggering. Waiting a few days or for the next crawl can help as well if you've recently made changes. If it still isn't up and running after that, I'd get hold of Support and let them know there's an error.

Just so I have this straight... if you go to Moz Analytics, choose your campaign, go to Search > Keyword Rankings in the left navigation, and choose the Competition tab... Your competitor is listed as Not In Top 50 for every single keyword you track?

Does this happen to every page on every search term or does this occasionally happen on certain terms? This could be caused by Google re-writing your title. If its happening all of the time then I would double-check your pages to see if you don't accidentally have two titles tags caused by competing wordpress plugins.

If you could give us a sample link and search term it would be easier to double-check.

Can't say I love it but I otherwise agree with Jesse... that giant monstrosity of an image previously was just annoying.

As far as I know, in order to authorize the page you need to show that you are an Admin by logging in to a personal account associated with the page.