Hi Christopher. There are quite a few of these depending on what it is you're selling. Things like SaaS providers who are providing a managed service for an entire enterprise typically have a very robust sales process but within analytics they'll do things like associating goal values with watching a video, downloading a PDF, attending a webinar, number of pages on the site visited, and so on. All these actions get tallied into a score that is associated with the lead and best case recorded into the CRM so that sales has an understanding of which leads are closer to purchase than others or how qualified a new lead might be.
Avinash Kaushik also goes into great detail on this in several places on his blog. Here's one such example: http://www.kaushik.net/avinash/web-analytics-tips-identify-website-goal-values/ You'll hear these called goal values, micro conversions, lead attribution (in the context of valuing multi-channel work), and so on. Basically it's everything that isn't a sale in the classic sense, but could be associated with a value in terms of "free" marketing, engagement, life-time-value, and so on. Sales are often included in the full model as well, but nearly any business starts out tracking those. Hope this helps your study further. Cheers!